This material is prepared based on the original historical research from the section "Histoire de l'ampélographie" ("History of Ampelography") authored by Ch. Tallavignes, published in the first volume of the classic "Ampélographie" edited by P. Viala and V. Vermorel (Macon, 1901–1910).

German and Austrian Ampelography of the Late 18th Century

At the close of the 18th century, German-speaking literature dedicated to the study of the vine was exceptionally rich in terms of the number of published works, though far from all possessed high scientific value. The accumulation of variety databases proceeded predominantly through the recording of regional experience. In 1770, Fr. Roettel published a list of grape varieties of Molsheim and Mützig, and H. Ossenfelder in 1771 detailed the specifics of Saxon viticulture. Important applied information was contained in the books of Du Roi, Gmelin, and Bechtstedt. Most valuable for science were the regional catalogues by J. Fischer for Franconia (1775), G. Gaupp for Württemberg (1776), and H. Müller for Saxony (1777). Balthasar Sprenger's treatise "The Practice of Viticulture" (Praxis des Weinbaues, 1778) became a classic textbook of the era. At the very end of the century, important monographs were issued by Knecht, Faudel (describing the vines of Riquewihr), Breuchel (classifying varieties by seed structure in the Palatinate), Sommer, König, and J. Braun, whose registry of 19 varieties was later reprinted by Sickler.

In 1798, C. Hausen compiled a detailed history of viticulture and wine trade in Brandenburg, estimating the local selection at 150 varieties. In the same year, J. Liebezeit published a description of Meissen viticulture, providing 26 brief but substantive morphological characteristics for 25 grape varieties. Finally, in 1800, Corthum, on the pages of the Reichs Anzeiger, estimated the total European selection at 300 varieties, describing 63 of them in detail, while Pastor J. Christus issued an applied treatise with a comprehensive analysis of vine anatomy. In parallel, varietal characteristics were embedded into large-scale colored pomology atlases inspired by Duhamel: the works of Mayer (Pomona franconica), Hirschfeld, Blotz, Burgsdorf, Röhling, Willdenow, Kirchner, Walther, and the magnificent illustrated atlas of J. Kerner.

Despite the abundance of books, German ampelography at the end of the century did not achieve monumental theoretical breakthroughs comparable to the campaigns of Rozier or Dupré de Saint-Maur. However, in Austria-Hungary, the figure of Sebastian Helbling stood out sharply during this period. In 1777, he published a profound study of 24 grape varieties common in the surroundings of Vienna. Helbling was the first in Central Europe to apply a strict hierarchical system of variety classification, dividing them:

  • Into two classes — by the anatomical shape of the berry;
  • Into four sub-classes — by the form and depth of indentation (sinuses) of the leaf blade;
  • Into subdivisions — according to whether the grape leaves were smooth (glabrous) or downy (tomentose).

Helbling painstakingly unraveled complex Austrian synonyms, creating some of the finest descriptions of his time. In the same year, 1777, Hiltenbrand's popular "Austrian Viticultural Catechism" was published, written in the form of questions and answers, and L. Mitterpacher issued his academic "Elements of Agriculture" in Latin in 1779. The Austrian phase of the century concluded with pomologies by Kraft, Märter, Rössler, and Paul Dercsènyi's excellent applied treatise on viticulture and fermentation of Tokay wines (1796).

The Spanish Ampelographic School: Simón de Rojas Clemente

While in Italy, Spain, and Portugal of the late 18th century scientific works remained sparse compilations (such as Martinez's notes of 1781, Garcia de la Lena's monograph on the Pedro Ximénez variety in 1792, or Valcárcel's 10-volume "Maison rustique" where Juan Duvao described 33 Valencian varieties), a monumental scientific explosion was preparing in Spain. In 1806–1807, the librarian of the Madrid Royal Botanical Garden, Don Simón de Rojas Clemente y Rubio, published his epochal "Essay on the Varieties of the Common Vine Vegetating in Andalusia" (Ensayo sobre las variedades de la Vid común que vegetan en Andalucia). This work did not merely become the first strictly specialized treatise on ampelography in history: its scientific depth and rigid methodology instantly turned it into a book of the first order, exerting a defining influence on the entire global science of the 19th century.

Clemente's life resembled an adventure novel. Born in Titaguas (Valencia) in 1777, he was destined by his parents for an ecclesiastical career, wearing the cassock for three years at the Seminary of Nobles in Madrid. Lacking a spiritual calling, the youth secretly attended natural science lectures and independently learned the Arabic language so deeply that in 1802 he was called upon to substitute for his professor. In Madrid, Clemente allied with an adventurous Catalan, Domingo Badia (the first European to penetrate Muslim Mecca). Badia presented to the government a plan for a secret exploration mission into the depths of unknown Africa, and Clemente warmly supported his friend. To prepare for the mission, the scientists left for Paris and London, where they fully transformed into Muslims: they dressed in Eastern burnouses, learned the manners, and Badia even accepted circumcision for conspiracy purposes.

Altering their names (Badia to Ali-Bey-Abdallah and Clemente to Mohamad-Ben-Ali), the two explorers arrived in Cadiz. Their disguise was so flawless that local society and authentic Moors bowed before them as Eastern princes. However, Badia, jealous of his companion's scientific focus, secretly departed for Tangier, abandoning Clemente in Cadiz. Finding himself alone, stranded, and fearing ridicule for such an abrupt end to an enthusiastically accepted exploration, Clemente decided to occupy his forced leisure with field research. It was during this dramatic period (1803–1804), on the advice of his friend Don Francisco Terán, that Clemente immersed himself in studying the vineyards of Andalusia. In 1805, he returned to normal life, shed his Arabic cloak, and took charge of the library of the Botanical Garden of Madrid, continuing his multi-faceted activities (including working as director of the acclimatization garden in Sanlúcar, writing theatrical plays in which he performed on stage, obtaining a pharmacy degree, and being elected deputy to the Cortes for Valencia in 1820).

Clemente's Scientific Method: The Anatomical Framework and Vine Tribes

Embarking on his study of the vineyards, Clemente utilized the eighth volume of Abbé Rozier's "Complete Course on Applied Agriculture." He found in it an excellent framework and methodical advice on variety recording, yet managed to impart a rigid scientific character to his treatise, which fundamentally differentiated it from Dussieux's empty verbiage. Clemente's treatise instantly won pan-European acclaim: as early as 1814, its French translation by de Caumels was published in Paris, and in 1821, the German version by Baron von Maskon appeared in Graz. Never before in the history of agricultural science had varietal confusion and vine biology been investigated so comprehensively.

For the precise identification of varieties, Clemente developed a profound anatomical framework (a synoptic table of external traits) to which modern science has added very little. The scholar systematically recorded and described the characteristics of all organs of the vine bush:

  • The Parent Souche (Trunk): General contexture, density, adhesion, and split depth of the bark; plant longevity and the precocity of budding.
  • Mature Shoots (Sarments): Total number, habit, length, direction of growth, structure of internodes (merithalles) and nodes, hardness of wood, density of pith, buds (form, angle with the stem), as well as the number and branching of tendrils.
  • Grape Leaves: Size, regularity, form, number of lobes, depth of lateral sinuses, and the structure of the petiole sinus; indentation pattern, shape of teeth, and the specific pubescence of the upper (surface, down) and lower (nature, adhesion, color) sides of the blade; length, thickness, down or hairs, and color of the petiole.
  • Flowering Organs: Structure and shedding pattern of the corolla, number and persistence of stamens.
  • Cluster Characteristics: Total number, size, form, lobes, compacity (density), structure of the peduncle, and pedicels (presence of warts or verrucae), structure of the pad and bourrelet.
  • Berry and Seeds: Size, color, form, uniformity, brush, stigma, consistency, pulp, skin, flavor, maturity; crown (glands), and the number, size, and color of the seeds (pépins).

As an outstanding botanist, Clemente understood that a simple listing of traits was insufficient. To facilitate practical work with the book for vignerons, he was the first in the history of science to propose classifying grape varieties into natural groups, which he termed "tribes" (tribus). Within each tribe, he united varieties that possessed a deep biological affinity or an extraordinary external resemblance. On a higher level, he divided the entire Spanish assortment into two global classes: vines with absolutely smooth (glabrous) leaves and vines with downy (tomentose) leaves. Although the scientist himself acknowledged that his system was not free from defects, his grouping method became the prototype of modern ampelographic classification.

The Controversy over the Fixity of Grape Varieties

Clemente dedicated a special place in his work to the fundamental scientific discussion regarding the nature of the variety and its mutability (vine variations), becoming a direct precursor to Odart, Chevreul, and Bouchardat. He entered into a sharp polemic with the views current in his era by Dussieux, Marshall, and Duhamel, who asserted that the grape chaotically degenerates and mutates into new varieties under the influence of cultivation, climate, or transfer to different soils.

Clemente came out resolutely in defense of the stability and fixity of varietal traits when the vine is propagated vegetatively. He demonstrated clearly that if grape varieties were constantly and chaotically shifting their form, ampelography itself would lose all practical purpose, turning into a description of constantly escaping images. The scholar wrote: "Botanists frequently differ in their views because they declare transformations of varieties hastily, without multi-year observations of individuals propagated from seed. As for practicing vignerons (agronomists), they quite rightly do not see these chaotic transformations. They receive vines from their ancestors with an unaltered physiognomy, and this varietal appearance remains stable for centuries, particularly if the vine is propagated by layering and cuttings."

At the same time, Clemente demonstrated absolute scientific precision, urging not to confuse biological mutability with the strictly practical concept of "degeneration" or deterioration of the vine: "For a plant to be considered deteriorated or degenerated in an agronomical sense, it is sufficient that it temporarily worsens the quality or quantity of its crop due to bad weather, soil exhaustion, or careless cultivation. But such short-term alterations in delicacy or berry size do not affect the botanical essence of the variety and never transform one vine into another." He suggested that certain stable European grape varieties are capable of completely preserving their unique characteristics even through rare seed propagation. Clemente studied, classified, and left precise descriptions for 120 grape varieties of Spain.

The Legacy of Esteban Boutelou: Concluding the review of the Spanish school, Clemente mentions his teacher, Professor of Agriculture Don Esteban Boutelou, with deep respect, calling him a pioneer who joined deep botanical knowledge with practical viticulture. Boutelou was the first in Spain to pay attention to such subtle ampelographic markers as the persistence of stamens after flowering, seed structure, and the presence of small warts on the pedicels of berries. Boutelou compiled excellent descriptions for 15 key grape varieties of Spain, including the celebrated vines of Sanlúcar and Xerez de la Frontera, which became a highly valued contribution to the general varietal heritage of Europe at the turn of the century.